Solidarity-Migration Nexus in, from and through Albania

This ethnographic node(s) in Albania seeks to explore irregular migration dynamics along this part of the Balkan Route and the role of solidarity, focusing on the experiences of both Albanians and other migrants transiting or settling the country and the role of transnational networks.

Although most scholarly work often links irregular migration in, from and through Albania with human smuggling or trafficking involving criminal networks that perpetuate coercion and exploitation, we will take a more reflexive and critical approach considering socio-cultural factors, which have been greatly overlooked. The goal of this research node is to explore the application/appropriation of a new conceptual tool – “entrepreneurial cultures,” coined by Leman and Janssens (2011) and the vernacular terms of Kurbet, Kanun and Besa – in understanding undocumented migratory movement in, from and through Albania.

Culture is a recent factor introduced to the “business model” of undocumented migration. Leman and Janssens (2011) introduced the concept of ‘entrepreneurial cultures,’ which refers to the practices, values, and norms shaping entrepreneurial migration behaviour in specific social and cultural contexts. Examining judicial files of Albanian human smuggling and trafficking, they found that Albanian networks differ from Russian, Chinese, Indo-Pakistani, and Turkish counterparts, often relying on culturally ingrained concepts such as Kurbet, Kanun and Besa, impacting both the psyche of average Albanians and their irregular migration networks.

The practice of Kurbet (or labor migration), has deep historical roots in Albania, where it was common for male family members to seek work to distant and foreign lands for long periods of time. Although, originating from the Turkish word “gurbet” and signifying a life lived “out in the world”, it carries a strong moral value of pride and courage, for it involved taking risks and making sacrifices especially as Albanian migration extended overseas (King 2005, 135; Vullnetari, 2007, 19) as well as the trope of suffering and exploitation (Mai and Schwandner-Sievers, 2003, 945). The Kurbet as migration under harsh conditions for family interests is omnipresent in the minds of all Albanians concerned in this business, the entrepreneurs and clients alike.

The traditional Albanian customary law, Kanun, functions as a habitus in the sense of Pierre Bourdieu, providing a set of deeply ingrained cultural norms and practices that shape social interactions based on internalized values and structures, particularly emphasizing honour and word of honour (Besa), as well as the dualism of friend and foe (Voell, 2003). The Kanun is seen not only in terms of authority and power in their relations with women or children but also as legitimising practices of placing minors into paid service or women into prostitution (Pangerc, 2009). As far as irregular migration is concerned, the Kanun morality of an exaggerated sense of honour and the self-understanding of an organisation under oath (Leman & Janssens, 2011).

Albanian smuggling networks are characterised by strong internal solidarity and strict group loyalty, shaped by historical “clan” structures and the Kanun’s “friend and foe narratives.“ These networks’ resilience is bolstered by their ability to mobilise strong community ties and adapt to changing circumstances. Albanian network groups often focus on specific market segments, such as transportation routes, and maintain operations within ethnically based kinship networks, utilising small-scale local businesses like travel agencies.

Within Albanian communities, cultural norms often perceive “human smuggling and informal economic activities as legitimate survival strategies in the face of limited legal opportunities. Strong community bonds and trust networks are vital for organising and maintaining irregular border crossing operations, ensuring loyalty, and mitigating risks. Trust is not an abstract term but is rooted in cultural norms of Besa (a uniquely Albanian word that cannot be directly translated into English). Besa is a multifaced cultural ideal encompassing truce (in blood feuds), protection oaths, security guarantees, honour, and the sanctity of one’s word (Mai and Schwandner-Sievers, 2003, 945; Voell, 2003, 92). It represents a verbal agreement that establishes an unbreakable bond of trust, loyalty, and protection even with one’s life. The “word of honour” aspect of Besa underscores the importance of trust and reliability in interpersonal relationships.

The extensive Albanian diaspora, particularly in Greece and Italy, plays a role in facilitating irregular migration by leveraging kinship ties and social capital. Diasporas are nodal points of transnational solidarity. They connect smugglers and migrants, and serve as enablers, facilitators, or enforcers, mainly in the recruitment phase of the process (Arhin, 2016).